1. Field of the Invention
Embodiments of this invention relate to the determination of a response to environmental inputs. In one particular embodiment, the systems and methods determine one or more states from environmental inputs and automatically provide an output responding to that input.
2. Description of the Prior Art
The objectives of Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen) revolve around increasing the safety and efficiency of air traffic, including more precise tracking and prediction of aircraft movement, as well as expanding the maximum number of aircraft potentially in flight at a given time. The vision of NextGen is one in which pilots will be responsible for following 4-dimensional (4D) trajectories while maintaining separation from other aircraft and weather. However, there is currently a lack of effective flight deck displays that support pilots who will be faced with the challenge of making more complex, strategic decisions than are required in current-day operations. In fact, the NextGen Integrated Work Plan includes an Operational Improvement for delegated responsibility for separation that specifically calls for improved displays to provide detailed traffic situation awareness to the flight deck. Pilots will also be required to contend with different data sources (e.g., data communications or DataComm, Automatic Dependant Surveillance Broadcast or ADS-B) than are currently used, and will need to integrate additional sources of information, particularly weather data, into trajectory planning and conflict avoidance.
Two key challenges to effective display design include information certainty and multimodal considerations. With respect to information certainty, uncertainty visualization is critical to TBO given the unique information needs and situation awareness requirements associated with conducting 4D operations (e.g., self-separation and self-management for deconfliction) in a dynamic and uncertain environment. With respect to multimodal considerations, research in cognition and neuroscience has produced substantial evidence that humans can enhance their information processing capabilities through the use of multiple modalities (e.g., Baddeley, 1992; Just, Carpenter, & Miyake, 2003; Wickens, 1980, 1984). In the auditory-visual context, this phenomenon may be partially explained by the fact that auditory information can be perceived without re-directing visual attention (Baldwin, 2002). Current flight decks are not equipped with technologies that dynamically adjust the mode of communication based upon this situational context. Technologies that can adapt information presentation in this manner will improve the effectiveness of joint human-automation systems in aviation. This notion of display adaptation is critical to developing a situationally-aware solution that considers contextual information to maximize system performance and minimize information processing bottlenecks by displaying the right information at the right time in the right format.
Current-day operations rely on Air Traffic Control to direct aircraft for separation from other aircraft and weather. However, in NextGen Operations, this responsibility will be delegated to the pilot of individual aircraft. As described by the Joint Planning and Development Office, trajectory-based operations (TBO) will dynamically adjust entire flows of aircraft or individual trajectories to take advantage of airspace opportunities and avoid constraints associated with weather and other aircraft that are not equipped for TBO. This type of trajectory-based control is very different from the clearance-based control of today, and will place additional responsibilities on pilots for maintaining safe and efficient operations. Displays that portray these opportunities and constraints to the flight crew to effectively convey information and its associated reliability to aid in optimized decision-making do not currently exist. Novel displays enable enhanced spatial awareness for flight crews, particularly with respect to separation from other aircraft and avoiding weather hazards. Novel display concepts will also aid in ensuring effective collaborative performance of the human-system team as the reliance on automation continues to increase.
Traditional approaches to uncertainty visualization generally represent uncertainty by providing additional data or manipulating the display of existing information. While uncertainty can be displayed as additional data elements, one pervasive concern with this design approach is the presentation of too much data, which can overload a pilot who is tasked with monitoring traditional displays and the visual scene out the window. Uncertainty can also be represented by altering the physical appearance of existing data through the use of different colors, by using gradation or texture, or by altering the shape or orientation of information icons or glyphs (e.g., Andre & Cutler, 1998; Kirschenbaum & Aruda, 1994; MacEachren, 1992).
Current operational flight decks often present multimodal information concept at a basic level—for example, the Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) is designed with auditory cues that permit pilots to visually monitor instruments simultaneously. However, in many cases the optimal modality is dependent upon the situation, including the tasks being performed, the personal attributes of the pilot, or the likelihood of hazards in the surrounding environment. Current flight decks are not equipped with technologies that dynamically adjust the mode of communication based upon this situational context.